History of Cannibalism

Cannibalism is an act that has been practiced throughout history in several ways whether for religious purposes, means of necessity, or as means for sexual gratification. Dow (“Cannibalism”) defines cannibalism as the act of either a human or an animal consuming its own species. There are two types of cannibalism among humans, exocannibalism and endocannibalism. The former is the practice of eating a person of an enemy group, whereas the latter is the practice of eating members of one’s own group. The word “cannibal” derives from a Latin American origin. During Columbus’ exploration of South America, he came across the Carib Indian warriors in the tropical lowlands. These Indians were referred to as “caniba”, a Latin term, similar to the Spanish term “can,” meaning dog. This term was strategically used to make the native people be seen as cannibalistic and placed at a level no greater than that of a dog. The Europeans used this ideology to subjugate the natives without conscience. Though many people have been taught that our history contains incidents of cannibalism, new discoveries show a controversy over how to portray the cannibalistic acts amongst the natives whom were described in Christopher Columbus’ findings. Wey-Gomez (2006) reports that Columbus and his crew had stumbled across a people whose “disfigured” rictus (facial expression) allegedly betrayed their craving for human flesh, causing Columbus to believe that these people were, indeed, cannibals. According to Salisbury (2001), it was in the 16th century that Pope Innocent IV declared cannibalism was a sin deserving punishment. In turn, Queen Isabella of Spain decreed that all Spanish colonists could only enslave natives who showed signs of practicing cannibalism. These orders gave the colonists an economic interest in making such allegations. So, it was thus, that Columbus used this strategy to justify his motives for colonizing the land and subjugating the natives he and his people encountered. Salisbury (2001) reports that at the same time Europeans were condemning natives as cannibals, forms of cannibalism were being used by Europeans as medicinal purposes. In 17th century Europe, medicines were made from blood and other human body parts. Fresh blood was consumed by Europeans to cure epilepsy while other body parts were used to treat other several diseases, including arthritis, reproductive difficulties, sciatica, and warts and skin blemishes. Two primary sources that provided the materials used in the making of these medicines were the bodies of executed criminals and pieces of mummified human flesh imported from Egypt. According to Johnson (2006), in the 18th century, native Hawaiians, also called the Maori, believed Captain James Cook and other British seamen to be cannibals. It was with the arrival to the Hawaiian Islands these half-starved seamen gorging on meat and asking question regarding cannibalism that gave the Maori the impression that the seamen were cannibals. It was on other occasions that the British offered the Maori roasted human flesh to see if the natives would participate in cannibalism. The Maori, not wanting to offend the British seamen, whom they believed to be cannibals, accepted the human flesh. It was in time that the Maori people, not wanting the British on their island, used the exaggerated cannibalistic act as a way of invoking fear into the British intruders. Thus, the Maori used cannibalism as a means of survival. It is with desperation to survive that some people have and will continue to participate in the act of cannibalism. The article on cannibalism from the Website Gourt (2008) reports that the first recorded incident of cannibalism for survival in the United States took place in the colony of Jamestown in the winter of 1609-1610. In order to survive their first winter, the colonists turned to cannibalism by eating their dead. One man became so desperate that he chose to murder his wife while she slept in his arms; he proceeded to consume all but her head. According to Reap (2006), in the year of 1846, a group of pioneers, known as the Donner Party, became snowbound while trying to cross an unfamiliar route, Hastings’ Cutoff, located in the Sierra Nevada. When food rations were depleted, some members of the party resorted to consuming the flesh of those who had died of starvation. Though some resorted to cannibalism in order to survive, there were those who refrained from the act who were also able to survive. Though it seems that people will only turn to cannibalism in times for survival purposes, there are many people who take part in cannibalism as a religious act or for cultural traditions. When it comes to cannibalism as a religious act or cultural tradition, it is not the savage form of cannibalism that people have come to know. According to Dow (“Cannibalism”), endocannibalism was considered a symbol of different religious act such as, reverence for the dead, to embody the spirit of the dead into living descendants, or the intention of insuring the separation of the soul from the body. An example of this endocannibalistic act was that of a Mayoruna man who requested that after his demise, his body would was to be consumed by his children instead of being consumed by the worms in a white man’s cemetery. Dow (“Cannibalism”) reports that in recent times, several lowland groups of South America continue to practice the consumption of ground-up bones and ashes of cremated kinsmen in an act of mourning. Though the flesh is not actually eaten, this act is still classified as endocannibalism. According to Dow (“Cannibalism”) exocannibalism, considered a cultural tradition in history, was a celebration of victory over enemies. An example was the Indian village of the Tupinamba, where the warriors would go on raids against other Indian villages, and if successful, they would butcher the bodies of the enemies and feast on them before returning home. Captured male prisoners would be taken back to the Tupinamba village where they would live anywhere from a month to several years. They would then be used in the ritual “escape” where they would be recaptured, then sacrificed or roasted and eaten. The desire that the Tupinamba and other similar native warriors had for eating their enemy was an expression of fierceness that promoted the rank of the warriors and struck fear into their enemies. Though this cultural tradition of cannibalism seems gruesome and horrific, there is another form of cannibalism that is more unimaginable and unsettling; this disturbing act of cannibalism, which is still practiced today, is that of sexual gratification. The most horrific act of cannibalism, which is performed for sexual gratification, is still practiced in present day. It is for each society to decide whether this act will be accepted. Surprisingly enough, in some countries there are people willing to accept this practice in their society, the United States not being one of them. Bardsley (2008), informs us that serial killer, Jeffrey Dahmer of Wisconsin, used cannibalistic acts to commit his murders in order to obtain sexual pleasure. As early as the age of fourteen, Dahmer had fantasies about killing men and having sex with their corpses. Dahmer committed his first murder just after graduating high school in June of 1978. He would not commit his next murder until after he had spent a couple of years in the army and discharged for alcoholism, arrested in 1981 for drunken and disorderly conduct, and then arrested in September of 1986 for masturbating in front of two boys. According to Bardsley (2008), it was in September of 1987, that Dahmer killed his second victim. This was the beginning of a killing spree that would last until he was discovered and charged with the murders of over twenty victims in 1991. Dahmer used the same technique repetitively for luring, murdering, and disposing of his victims. Dahmer would invite men into his apartment to watch videos or to pose for photos. He would use personally prescribed sedatives to drug his victims, then strangle them with his bare hands or a leather strap. Once his victims were dead, he would have sex with the dead corpses. Dahmer continued with the ritual by taking Polaroid pictures of him dissecting the bodies. He would keep these pictures for future viewing pleasure. Dahmer would then use chemicals and acids to reduce the flesh and bones into a sludge which he would then pour down a drain or toilet to dispose of the body. Dahmer would save some parts of the body to later consume. Dahmer claimed that he ate the human flesh of his victims because he believed their spirits would come alive within in him, giving him a sexual arousal. Jeffrey Dahmer lived in a society where this cannibalistic behavior was unacceptable. He was found guilty on all charges and sentenced to life in prison where he soon met his own demise at the hands of a fellow prisoner. Although his act was deemed unacceptable in American society, there was a more recent act that was considered acceptable in 2001. According to the BBC News Website (2003), in Germany, a man named Armin Meiwes was arrested and charged with murder. Meiwes was a homosexual who, since the age of eight, had fantasies that consisted of eating another human being. The information provided in the BBC News Website (2003) reports that in 2001, Meiwes had posted an advertisement on the internet requesting a man to willingly sacrifice himself to be eaten. Meiwes fantasy was answered when a man named Bernd-Jurgen Brandes answered the ad. Meiwes acted quickly by inviting Brandes over to his dwelling. He and Brandes struck out an agreement that Brandes would consume alcohol and over-the-counter drugs until he was incapacitated. Meiwes then proceeded to severe Brandes’ penis and try to eat it with Brandes’ participation. Brandes soon became weak from loss of blood, causing Meiwes to transfer him to the bathtub where he read Brandes a book for the next three hours. Meiwes then became inpatient when Brandes did not die, so Meiwes proceeded to stab Brandes in the neck, instantly killing him. Meiwes then videotaped himself while he hung Brandes’ body from a meat hook, and then drained and gutted the corpse. He continued videotaping while he carved out large chunks of flesh which he would store in his freezer and consume over the next ten months. According to the BBC News Website (2003), Meiwes was only discovered when he had posted up another request on the internet. At the time of his first internet posting, Germany had no laws against cannibalism. This fact and the fact that Brandes was a willing participant in this act made it difficult for the prosecution to indict Meiwes with charges of murder. Meiwes only received eight and a half years in prison for manslaughter. Astonishingly, German society felt that this punishment was quite harsh because Meiwes had not killed an unwilling participant. A year later, when Meiwes appealed his case, prosecutors were able to charge him with murder on the fact that Brandes had been incoherent and unstable at the time of the cannibalistic act, rendering him incapable of making a sound decision. Meiwes was then sentenced to life in prison. In 2003, a law was passed in Germany prohibiting acts of cannibalism. As of today, cannibalism is still considered an unspeakable taboo in several societies, though it is an act that has existed throughout all history. It is somewhat controversial as to what the exact extent of the practice was here in the New World, but there is evidence that shows it existed in the life of the indigenous people of South America. In the 16th century, cannibalism was conveniently used as a demeaning label to subjugate the natives in South America by the Europeans. Cannibalism has been practiced in 17th century Europe for medicinal purposes; it was used in several cultures for religious purposes and for show of power over one’s enemy. There were times of starvation when people needed to survive and had turned to cannibalism. Cannibalism even took place for the most unthinkable reason, murder and consumption for sexual gratification. Surprisingly enough, cannibalism has mostly been used in past times, and most likely in unforeseen events to come, as means for survival. It can be said that cannibalism is an act of wrong-doing, but if and when certain factors play into a situation where cannibalism becomes a thought of reasoning to rectify the situation, who can say which people will succumb to this taboo in most societies? Below is a timeline chart that shows how several incidents of cannibalism that occurred in history. Information provided by Gourt Website (2008). WHEN WHERE WHY 70AD ROME During the siege which destroyed Jerusalem, two women made a pact to eat each others children. 1064-1072AD EGYPT People turned to cannibalism in order to survive the famine, which was caused by the Nile River not flooding for eight years. 1095 JERUSALEM Crusaders of the First Crusade fed on the bodies of their enemies to avoid starvation. 1315-1317 EUROPE People turned to cannibalism during the Great Famine. 1490s-1600s THE NEW WORLD Several accusations of cannibalism were made against the natives of the New World though there are controversies as to whether cannibalism actually took place or if the colonists used it as an excuse for colonizing the land and subjugating the natives. 1600’s EUROPE Consumption of mummified bodies and other forms of cannibalism were used for medicinal purposes. 1609-1610 JAMESTOWN, VA. In order to survive the first winter, a man killed his wife and ate her body, save her head. (Winter) 1672 HOLLAND During the Franco-Dutch War, a significant Dutch political figure and his brother were shot, mutilated, and partly eaten. 1816 FRANCE After the French ship Medusa sank, the survivors resorted to cannibalism after four days of drifting on a raft. 1820 NANTUCKET After the ship Whale Essex sank, survivors in the three small rafts resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order to survive. 1845 CANADIAN ARCTIC Sir John Franklin’s Arctic expedition became lost and the men resorted to cannibalism and occasional hunting in order to survive. 1846-1847 SIERRA NEVADA The Donner Party, a group of settlers on a wagon train, became snowbound in the Sierra Nevada and resorted to cannibalism to (Winter) keep from starving to death. 1870 COLORADO A man killed and ate his traveling companions after becoming snowbound in the Rocky Mountains. 1884 ENGLAND Four crewmembers of an English yacht became lost in a storm. One man fell unconscious from hunger and drinking salt water and two others (one objected) killed and then consumed his body. 1919-1924 GERMANY Serial killer and cannibal Fritz Haarmann, killed and consumed over twenty-four young men for means of sexual gratification. 1905-1928 UNITED STATES Albert Fish, a sadomasochist, killed and ate the bodies of children and some adults throughout twenty-three of the United States as a means for sexual gratification. 1932-1933 UKRAINE During Holodomor (a famine), many Ukrainians resorted to cannibalism for survival. 1945 CHICHI JIMA World War II Japanese soldiers killed, rationed and ate eight downed American pilots in order to avoid starving to death. 1950’s WISCONSIN Serial killer Ed Gein murdered and consumed women body parts in order to sexually gratify himself. 1972 ANDES A Uruguayan rugby team’s plane crashed in the Andes and the survivors consumed the bodies of the dead in order to survive. 1981 PARIS For sexual purposes, Issei Sagawa, a Japanese student of English literature became attached to a fellow student, killed her, had sex with her corpse, and then consumed her body. 1978-1991 WISCONSIN Serial killer and cannibal Jeffrey Dahmer’s killing spree. 1990’s NORTH KOREA During a famine, the people resorted to cannibalism for survival purposes. 1990’s RUSSIA Serial killer, rapist, and cannibal, Alexander Spesivtsev, with the help of his mother, killed nineteen girls and consumed their bodies. He was suspected of having been involved in a dozen other murders as well. 2001 GERMANY German cannibal Armin Meiwes eats his voluntary victim for sexual gratification. Annotated Bibliography Bardsley, Marilyn (2008). Jeffrey Dahmer. Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://www. trutv.com/library/crime/serial_killers/notorious/dahmer/2.html A written documentary giving details of police’s first encounter with serial killer, Jeffrey Dahmer, to analysis of Dahmer’s mental status. Written details of what evidence was found in Dahmer’s apartment. Written documentation includes description of Dahmer’s childhood, arrest, defense used in court, and reasoning for committing the murders. Dow, James W. Cannibalism in the new world. Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http:// personalwebs.oakland.edu/~dow/personal/papers/cannibal/cannibal.html An overview taken from an Encyclopedia which contains information on the early Indian tribes of Latin America that practiced cannibalism. This piece goes on to define cannibalism, explain the two types of cannibalism, and also the origin of the word cannibal. Johnson, Daniel Morley (2006). Cannibal talk: the man-eating myth and human sacrifice in the south seas. Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22758106&site=ehost-live An abstract of an article review on the misunderstanding of how Europeans came to the conclusion that the Maori people (Hawaiian) were cannibals. Cannibalism was used by the Europeans to justify colonization, extermination, missionization, and Indian-hating. Reap, Melanie A. (2006). Examining the westward movement through a new lens: the donner party. Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=241175625&site=ehost-live Article used by teachers to teach students the background of the Donner Party. This piece explains why the Donner Party took the never before used route which them to be stranded in the pass. Provides statistics of the members of the party, those who survived, and died. Salisbury, David F. (2008). Brief history of cannibal controversies. Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://vanderbuilt.edu/exploration/news_cannibalism_pt2.htm An article containing controversial information on cannibalism where the early Europeans and American Indian tribes are concerned. Provides information that the Europeans of the 15th, 16th, and the 17th centuries resorted to cannibalism for medicinal purposes. Also explains how cannibalism was used to justify colonization and to employ violent means to subjugate the native people. Wey-Gomez, Nicolas (2007). A Poetics of Dismemberment: The book of job and the cannibals of Cariay in columbus's account of the fourth voyage. Retrieved June 13, 2008, from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&bd=aph&AN= 25350083&site=ehost-live A Colonial Latin American review which provides information on Christopher Columbus’ encounters with the natives of the land. Includes information which supports Columbus’ reasoning for believing the natives were cannibals. Also talks about his many failures and has several of his journal entries. BBC News (2003). German cannibal tells of fantasy . Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/Europe/3286721.stm This news article relays information about a German homosexual man who advertised for, killed and consumed a willing participant. It further provides information on this murderer’s childhood fantasies of cannibalism, details of his killing, trial and sentence. Cannibalism (2008). Retrieved June 11, 2008, from http://articles.gourt.com/en/ cannibalistic This website defines definition and provides the origin of the word cannibal. This site provides information on both non-human and human cannibalism. It also covers incidents related to modern and historical cannibalism. The information also covers the many different reasons for practicing or taking part in cannibalism which include cannibalism in war, as a cultural libel, as a funeral rite, and even as sexualized gratification.