Impact of Case Law

There have been many case decisions throughout police history that have impacted police procedures. Three such cases that effect policing today are the Terry versus Ohio case, the Miranda versus Arizona case, and the Mapp versus Ohio case.

The case that allowed for the police to perform a stop and frisk was that which involved a Terry and Richard Chilton. It was Detective Martin McFadden who observed the suspicious activity of these three men and decided to approach them. McFadden decided to stop and frisk each man. During the search, guns were found in the possession of Terry and Chilton. Both were arrested and convicted (Dempsey, 2005). Upon appeal, the Supreme Court held, 8-1, that a person may be detained without probable cause to make an arrest if there is reasonable suspicion to make an arrest. A frisk may be justified when its purpose is to discover guns, knives, clubs, or other hidden instruments for assault on an officer (Rush, 2003).

The case Miranda versus Arizona has made an impact on how suspected individuals are interrogated. The case involved an 18-year-old female victim who was raped and released by a 23-years-old male named Ernesto Miranda. Miranda was arrested in connection with the rape. Miranda was known to have a police record dating back to when he was 14 years old. After being arrested, Miranda was identified by the victim in a line up. He was then taken to the interrogation room where he eventually confessed to the crime with no attorney present. Miranda was found guilty and sentenced to 20 to 30 years in prison. It was upon an appeal that the Supreme Court ruled that Miranda’s confession was inadmissible. The Supreme Court ruled that confessions are by nature inherently coercive and so custodial interrogation makes defendants’ confessions compelled, not voluntarily. The courts felt that the interrogations violated individual’s Fifth Amendment rights (Dempsey, 2005).

It is with this case in mind that the police recite a person’s Miranda rights. Before interrogation, a person is advised that he or she have the right to remain silent, anything he or she says can be used against him or her, he or she has the right to consult a lawyer and have that lawyer and have the lawyer present, and if he or she can’t afford an attorney, one will be provided (Dempsey, 2005).

Another case important to police was Mapp versus Ohio. The case involved woman, Dollree Mapp, whose home was suspected as the place where police thought they might find Virgil Ogletree, wanted in connection with a bombing at the home of boxing promoter, Donald King. At the first attempt to search, police were denied entry on the advice of Mapp’s lawyer. Within three hours, the police returned with additional officers. Police forced entry, denying Mapp’s lawyer entry. A paper purported to be a warrant was presented to Mapp on demand. Mapp was handcuffed when she became “belligerent” and the entire house was searched. Pornographer literature was found and Mapp was arrested for possessing obscene materials. The warrant was never produced in court and the Supreme Court reversed Mapp’s conviction based on the police violating her Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court then extended the exclusionary rule to all state courts and law enforcement personnel. The Supreme Court felt that the exclusionary rule extended prevented individuals from rude invasions of privacy by state officers. The individuals get no more than what the Constitution guarantees and the police officer no less than which is honest law enforcement that is entitled (Dempsey, 2005).

References

Dempsey, J.S. & Forst, L.S. (2005). Introduction to policing (3rd ed.).

Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN: 0-534-64290-X

Rush, George E. (2003). The Dictionary of Criminal Justice (6^th ed.).

McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Different Types of Stress Experienced by Police Officers

Police work and its environment produce stress that plays physically or mentally on the individual. Four categories of stress confront officers’ external stress, organizational stress, personal stress, and operational stress.

External stress is produced by the dangers and threats that officers face in the line of duty (Dempsey, 2005). Examples of external stress would be high-speed chases or a “gun run” where a person is in possession of a gun. This kind of stress would produce a high strung attitude which could make the officer more apt to respond in a suspicious manner. Socially, the officer is more suspicious of erratic behavior. With all this “on the edge” feelings, an officer would start having high blood pressure and heart problems leading to overall health problems.

Organizational stress is produced by elements inherent with the military character of the police service (Dempsey, 2005). Examples would be the odd working hours, working holidays, and the impact strict discipline. This type of stress affects how the police would work through their day. They could have an attitude of not wanting to be there because they are away from their families. Officers would have more of a tendency to call off. Socially, they would be depressed and not wanting to spend time with others from those they see at work. Personally, this stress would interfere with their family life and put stress on their marriages and any other relationships.

Personal stress is produced by the interpersonal characteristics involved in police organization (Constant, 2005). Examples would include poor training, fear of job competence, lack of job satisfaction, and getting along with other officers. On the job, this can cause critical response on the job, become the stressor for other officers, and reduce their efficiency as an officer. Socially, they become isolated and distant. Personally, they become ill or suicidal. Police have one of the highest suicide rates in the U.S. (Constant, 2005).

Operational stress is produced by the need to confront the tragedies of urban life. Examples are the dealings with criminals, mentally disturbed drug addicts, and expectations of the community (Dempsey, 2005). This kind of stress would effect the officer in that lack of interest in performing 100 percent for those who are unappreciated. Socially, they become more distant and care less for other’s welfare. Personally, the officer becomes more aggressive and moody towards others (Constant, 2005).

Police work is a very high-stress occupation. Police departments should institute stress management programs that identify the type of stress and proper counseling offered to the officers. Examples of proper counseling would be peer counselor training to deal with suicidal feelings, psychological services, physical fitness training, and mental health counseling (Dempsey, 2005).







References

Constant, Terry (2005). Not so obvious police stress. Retrieved on March 9, 2009, from
http://www.tearsofacop.com/police/articles/constant.html
Dempsey, J.S. & Forst, L.S. (2005). Introduction to policing (3rd ed.).
Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN: 0-534-64290-X

Evaluation and Judgement

There are a few different ways that people evaluate others. We as people rely on sets of expectations and beliefs about different categories of other people to form impressions of them. First impressions are the strongest and seem to set that certain expectation of that person in future meetings.

Attribution is another tool used for evaluating other people. To understand another person’s behavior, we make judgments, either internal or external. An external behavior is attributed a personal factor. In determining whether the behavior is internal or external, one relies on three kinds of information about the behavior. How distinctive is the behavior? How consistent is the behavior? What is the consensus of the other’s similar behavior?

One more tool used for evaluating is that of interpersonal attraction is the strongest when proximity brings people into frequent contact. Other reasons of attractiveness can be physical, similarity of attitudes, interests, and values.

How we evaluate people can play a role in our expectation of them. As with first impressions, we set up an idea of how that person will be when we next meet them. There is a visual set of how that person will be. This impression rules how we will behave towards that individual, whether positive or negative. As with attributing reasons of behavior, we use this as a way to evaluate why another’s behavior is acceptable or not, which, in turn, influences our attitude towards another person. Attributing a person’s behavior can leave us with positive or negative mind or reaction.

Just as impressions and attributions leave us with negative or positive reactions in body and mind, so does interpersonal attraction to another. Attractiveness in its many forms gives us the reason to be more frequent in our contact with others or our distance with others.
Evaluating people plays a role in out expectations of others in a way that can be a disadvantage. First impressions can create a biased treatment of others that can cause harm to other’s psychological stability. A stereotype can be born from impressions and become a social cancer that can become the ruination of a people (i.e. extermination of the Jewish people during World War II.)

When making an attribution one is guessing about the true causes of a particular action. There are so many guesses that are vulnerable to a number of prejudices that a true attribution can cause harm. As with making an attribution about another’s behavior that is related to one’s culture. One wrong guess can affect other’s attitude towards a culture in a negative influence. There are disadvantages of physical attraction in that one can become obsessed with making themselves to fit what society labels as physically attractive. People obsessed with filling the mold can become financially and psychologically lost trying to please the very essence of attractiveness.

A person can lose all self-value looking for that one person they are “supposed to be attracted to” but never allowing themselves to be open to those who may be different and offer a different look on life.

Corrections and Treatment

The purpose of probation is to ensure that orders and conditions imposed by the courts are met by the juvenile offender. Also, probation provides rehabilitation for the offender. According to Siegel (2005), in an effort to make probation work, the state administers organize their services through local courts. Where as, in some states some probation services are split, allowing for a more successful turn out. An estimated eighteen thousand probation officers are employed throughout the United Sates. The importance of probation is that it allows juvenile offenders, who are not considered a danger to society, the opportunity to receive a non-punitive treatment, which allows them to be placed back in to society with knowledge of acceptable behavior.

The purposes of intensive supervision are to decarcenarate or keep out of prison those juveniles who would otherwise be put in secure institutions. Also, there is the purpose to have a closer intense security than that of traditional probation. This kind of supervision gives the community a more secure feeling, allowing the integration of the juvenile to transfer safely. According to Siegel (2005), some efforts of intensive supervision are to make sure that the program is worth the money put into it. One state, Mississippi, had three of its counties use innovative experiments to find that this treatment program does indeed cost less than that of regular probation and cognitive behavioral treatment. The importance of having intensive supervision allows a juvenile the chance to avoid incarceration. It also gives the community the peace of mind in knowing that these juveniles are being monitored carefully.

The purpose of restitution is to allow the juvenile offender to repay for damages or injuries caused by the crime they committed. According to Siegel (2005), efforts in understanding if restitution really works as a treatment are found in analyses that are conducted in some states. Percentages show that restitutions are successfully completed, but that repeated offenses, committed by these juveniles do not disappear. The importance of restitution is that it provides alternative sentencing options, it offers compensation to the victim, and it helps the offender to become a productive member to society.

If a juvenile does not qualify for a community-based treatment program, they must go into a secure institution. One issue that institutions face is the physical conditions of some of the older establishments. Many of the older buildings place all offenders into one single place regardless of the serious their crime. This can create violent differences or injury and threat to those with lesser charges. According to Siegel (2005), the Juvenile Residential Facility Census, shows that thirty-nine percent of the 2,875 facilities are overcrowded, leading to violent escalades. The older buildings present heath issues due to asbestos and vermin that plague the buildings. Many of these buildings are not up to modern codes. Another issue concern is the treatment programs that are offered. The larger the institution, the more programs offered. Despite the good intentions of the program most are not put into maximum effect. According to Siegel (2005), most experts’ feel that correctional treatment has little effect on keeping a juvenile from repeating offenses.

When a juvenile is released from an institution there is a transitional period back into society that can be very difficult for the juvenile. According to Siegel (2005), there are aftercare programs that can make the transition a success. One such program is used by the state of Colorado. Sixty days prior to their release, the youths began a series of step-down measures. Once released, they continue with several months of day treatments that are monitored. Another program used by the state of Virginia, is that upon release the juvenile is put in a group home for thirty to sixty days. During this time supervision is gradually lessened. Contact with staff is also lessened during this time.








References

Siegel, L. J. and Welsh, B. C. (2005). Juvenile delinquency: The core. (2nd ed.). Belmont CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Prisoner Rights

Although, at a time, prisoners were considered property of prison institutions, times have changed, allowing prisoners to have some rights to avoid abuse by correctional officers and false imprisonment. When an individual is found guilty of a conviction, they give up many rights. So, the few rights they are allowed as prisoners are very precious. These rights not only apply to those incarcerated, but apply to any individual convicted of a felony.

Rights for prisoners give them control of not being abused by the institution and forgotten by society. These rights allow prisoners to appeal their case, sue for damages that may occur while they are in confinement, press criminal charges against attacks from other inmates, and other civil and administrative actions that include divorce, child custody, and financial matters.

There can be positive and negative impacts of prisoner rights. The positive impact off the rights include drawing attention toward the physical and psychological abuse put on prisoners, environmental conditions, false imprisonment, and medical needs. Attention was brought to the public that inmates were being neglected when it came to HIV/AIDS in prisons. Having rights, prisoners were allowed HIV education, prevention, cure, treatment, and support (Betteridge, 2004).

Negative impacts of prisoner rights can be giving prisoners the wrong freedoms and then affect the security of prisons or those that work there. An example would be the censoring of prison mail, both incoming and outgoing. Today, prison mail can be read but not censored. This can be such a negative impact especially when the mail can be used to plan escapes, arrange violent acts, or expand gang activity. It was the case of Thornburgh v. Abbott that a regulation had to be put on periodicals or books threatened the security, good order, or discipline of the constitution (Foster, 2006).

The purpose of the Eighth Amendment is to prohibit the government from “Excessive bail that shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments imposed” (Foster, 2006). “The U.S. Supreme Court rules that criminal sentences that are inhuman, outrageous, or shocking to social conscience are considered cruel and unusual” (Farflex Dictionary Website, 2009).

The function of this amendment stands to assure that this power of the government be exercised within the limits of civilized standards (Duhaime, 2008). At one time, the prisoners were property of the government and many prisoners were beaten and abused. Many societies wanted to forget about those who were labeled outcasts and were frowned upon. Prisons, at one time, would be the answer to all criminal acts, even misdemeanors. In that type of system, abuse is inevitable. The Eighth Amendment prevents neglect of prisoners. It is easy to treat others inhumanly when they are seen as not fit for society. The Eighth Amendment prevents prisoners from being treated in and inhuman way (Duhaime, 2008).

Many states feel that the electric chair is considered cruel but it is argued that the electric chair does not torture or leave an inmate in lingering death, but extinguishes life in an instantaneous moment (Foster, 2006). It is thus stated in the Eighth Amendment that all punishments imposed by the government correspond with the offense committed by the defendant (Duhaime, 2008).

The purpose of Section 1983 of Civil Rights Litigation is to allow prisoners their civil rights by giving them some control over their rights as not to be abused. This section allows the prisoner to sue when certain prisoner rights are violated. Section 1983 of Title 42 of the U. S. Code provides “every person of any State or Territory…any citizen of the United States…shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law, suit or equity, or other proper proceeding for redress” (Foster, 2006). This section applies to the welfare of each prisoner. When prisoners are imprisoned, they become outcasts of society and are not seen as that of the human population. However, it is because of this attitude that prisoners are allowed their civil rights.

Certain actions require prisoners to have the support they need that prevents physical attacks by correction officers, correct medical treatment, due process, access to courts, attorneys, good living conditions, religious expression, and others (Foster, 2006). One such case, Powell v. Barrett was the decision of whether jail strip searches violated the Fourth Amendment. Five Plaintiffs were strip searched while being booked into the Fullerton County Jail and felt it was against their rights. This case reached the court of appeals. The 11th Circuit stated the factual premise of this argument was unsupported. This case showed that prisoners are given the ability to process to protect their rights (Newdorf, 2008).

I have to admit that I felt that prisoners gave up their rights when they chose to break the law. I realize that breaking the law does have some grey areas that, at times, can be out of a person’s control. I, like many others, believed prisoners should have no rights but, again, this lifestyle is not so easily put in black and white. Some crimes are worse than others. Not all crimes deserve the same kind of punishment and this is where a prisoner’s civil rights protect them. Prisoners are humans and should be treated as such. They should not be neglected or abused; however, I do believe there are some rights that do not benefit the workers, society, or other prisoners. The one example of prisoner mail shows how certain rights need regulation and protect many. Prisoners need their civil rights but because of the specialization of the environment, their rights still need to be regulated.



















References
Betteridge, Glenn (2004). Prisoners’ health & human rights in the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Retrieved on June 10, 2009, from http://www.aegis.com/files/caln/

HEPP040901_ref30.pdf

Duhaime, Lloyd (2008). Eighth amendment. Retrieved on June 10, 2009, from http://
www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary/E/EighthAmendment.aspx
Foster, B. (2006). Corrections: the fundamentals. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Newdorf, David (2008). Eleventh circuit decision in Powell v. Barrett creates a circuit
split on jail strip searches. Retrieved on June 10, 2009, from http://www.
section1983law.com/
(2009). Eighth amendment. Retrieved on June 10, 2009, from http://legal-
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Eighth+Amendment

Things Are Not Always What They Seem

“A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner and “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson really stood out to me in a list of readings for my Literature course. It seemed that both authors, who lived in different times, shared the same views on society. Though both stories seem very similar to one another, they also share their differences.

In “A Rose for Emily,” Faulkner definitely expresses his views on society by writing down how the townsfolk spoke of Emily. They always referred to Emily with pity. Throughout the story, it seems that Emily is a misfit because she does not follow the norms of society. Faulkner gives the impression that Emily loses her only love and grows old and somewhat eccentric, allowing only her Black servant to enter her home. The plot of the story, however, is quite deceiving as it is in Jackson’s “The Lottery.” In “The Lottery,” what seems to be an ideal little town is getting ready to hold their annual lottery. Jackson writes about how the children of the town are gathering rocks and playing with each other before they go and wait for the drawing. The men and women eventually gather their children as the time for the drawing nears. Mr. Summers, the man who was in charge of the drawing seems to be a quite jovial man. The writer goes on to write about a woman, Mrs. Hutchinson, coming late to the drawing explaining how she forgot what day it was. As the people start drawing pieces of paper, the feeling of doom comes over the reader for it talks about how the people are somewhat nervous to be doing so. The plots of the story are quite similar in how they are explaining what can be viewed as everyday happenings in a normal town.

The stories not only share similarities in their plots, but in how they end in ironic twists. In “A Rose for Emily,” it turns out that the townspeople had no idea just who Emily was. It turned out she, herself, was not hiding from society, but she was hiding a secret. She had killed that lover of hers who the townspeople had assumed had abandoned her. In “The Lottery,” it turns out that the actual lottery is a death wish. Whoever draws the slip of paper with a “death warrant” on it is stoned to death by the other townspeople. Another similarity that the stories share is the use of symbolism. The black box in “The Lottery” seems to represent it purpose, death. Meanwhile the word rose in “A Rose for Emily” seems to represent the unnecessary pity that the townspeople shower upon Emily.

Though the stories seem very similar, they are actually quite different from each other. In the end of “The Lottery,” the unfortunate Mrs. Hutchinson tries to rebel against the tradition before she is killed. Before the drawing, the townsfolk mention how other nearby towns have quit the tradition due to the young folk who disagree with its purpose. Just as the box in this story has a purpose, so does the story itself. Jackson definitely delivers her negative views on the conformity of society and how sometimes rebelling can be a positive action. In “A Rose for Emily,” Faulkner seems to want to express his ideals on, not only his views on society, but on the importance of a person’s individuality, their identity. Although Emily lives her life in the middle of town she is still quite separated from the townspeople. Though the townspeople think that they know exactly who Emily is, they are proven wrong at the end of the story. It seems that Emily had a secret identity that she was hiding her whole life.

Causation of Crime

When it comes to comparing and contrasting the biological and psychological trait theories with the social process theories there are several similarities as well as differences. Some of these similarities are family influence, criminal behavior, treatment, and labeling. The differences include, once again, treatments, society’s labeling, and power to control.

When comparing the two theories, family influence is part of the psychological and social development of an individual. Behavioral patterns begin during infancy when family members influence how an individual is psychologically, which includes any form of abuse. Socially, families can influence by becoming the “teacher” of crime and showing them how to commit crimes. Criminal behavior becomes similar in both theories. This behavior is either attained genetically or socially. Criminal behavior can be genetically passed down through some psychological disorder like schitzofrenia. Socially, criminal behavior is passed down and learned by observation of family crimes, like child abuse. Treatment is a similarity for both theories. Although there are different forms, treatment is offered in both cases. Labeling of individuals exists in both theories. Although treatment and labeling are two similarities, they can also be differences in both theories.

Treatments in biological and psychological trait theories can be quite a contrast to the social contrast theories. Biological and psychological treatments would include medical intervention and/or the involvement of a psychiatrist. Social treatment would include involvement of a therapist. Although similarly labeled in both theories, there is a big contrast as to how that labeling is administered. Those in a biological and psychological theory will receive more understanding from society, for they are seen as unable to help there condition because “it is in their genes.” These individuals would most likely receive a lighter punishment or sentence as opposed to other criminals. Those individuals in the social process theory, who will be labeled as delinquents or criminals, will most likely receive a harsh punishment or sentence and most likely that label will remain with them for the remainder of their lives. The power to control involvement in crime well differs in both theories. Biologically and psychologically, an individual has no control, that person’s illness controls them. They have no conscious of their actions. Socially, an individual has the choice to surround themselves with positive influences; they have control of their choices.

The relationship between the biological and psychological trait theory and the age and crime trend shows that biologically, the development of young adults tends to leave room for little self-control when it comes to crime. Hormonal imbalance can lead to irrational thinking and weaken ones resistance to choose rational thinking. Young adults are more psychologically influenced by peers and family history.

The state of California statistics show that juveniles and young adults do play a large role in crimes that are committed. The youth and young adults make up 75 percent of those who commit homicide in California. Of those 75 percent, 20 percent rage from the age of 11 to 17 years old. California’s juvenile arrest rate is higher than the national average. California’s rate has reached approximately 9,000 while the national average has only reached approximately 1,900. California’s juvenile arrest rate exceeds that for most large states. Approximately 150,000 juveniles, annually, committed a violent crime, 120,000 juveniles were arrested for drug abuse, 100,000 juveniles committed a property crime, and approximately 15,000 juveniles have committed other types of crimes.

Skinner's Theories

B. F. Skinner, one of America’s most influential Behavioral Psychologists, was known for his operant conditioning theory. Other theories Skinner contributed to the psychology field were that of punishment, reinforcement, and superstitious behavior.

Skinner’s most-known theory is that of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is when behavior operates on the environment to produce consequences. It is an expressed behavior rather than a drawn out behavior; and it is characteristic of an active living being. Operant behavior is initially produced by a living being in the absence of any easily identifiable drawn out stimulus and it is controlled by its consequence – the effect that it has.

The very essence of operant conditioning is reinforcement. If a behavior is reinforced, it is strengthened, and the probability increases the type of behavior that will be repeated. There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Both types increase the probability of response, both strengthen the behavior. Positive reinforcement involves the addition of something to a situation when a response is made. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of something when a response is made in a situation.

Some situations, according to Skinner, were controlled behavior through suppression. The suppression used is known as punishment. Punishment is a behavior, a controlled technique, designed to suppress a behavior. However, some people think of a punishment as a reward. For example, a parent might punish a child and put them in their room for misbehavior, but that might be where the child wants to be, so it becomes a reward.

Another of Skinner’s theories is that of superstitious behaviors. Superstitious behaviors are the result of accidental relationships between responses and reinforcers. There is no cause and effect relationship between the response and the reinforcers. For example, when a rain dance is performed and it rains a few days later, it is all coincidental.

A Brief History of the Penitentiary System

The penitentiaries of the 1800s were set up as small structures holding a limited number of prisoners who were kept isolated much of their time. These penitentiaries were very orderly and quiet.

By 1900, there were a number of population explosions within many of the major cities. These population growths caused rampant crime problems which led to the incarceration of many more prisoners. Two of the more filled prisons in America were the Ohio State Penitentiary and the Missouri Penitentiary at Jefferson City. Ohio held 2,000 prisoners in 1,800 cells and Missouri held 2,300 in 500 old cells by the beginning of the twentieth century.

The beginning of the century saw continued population growth so existing prisons began to expand. The prisons used the architectural model known as the Big House. These Big Houses were able to hold three to four times more prisoners than the old prisons.

In the 1800s, the men were used for labor but in a way that was to keep them busy and occupied. In the 1900s, the essence of the Big House was hard labor. Men and women were put to work making products that were sold to the public. Also, convicts were contracted out to businesses. With so many in prisons, prison labor intensified to a point where battles were fought in state legislatures across the country. Many complained about prison labor and its sale of prison-made products affecting those free people who were more deserving of the employment. By 1932, inmate idleness became a greater strain on the security forces. Also, with fewer products supporting the finances of the prisons, financial burdens of running the prisons were laid on the taxpayers.

It came to many people’s attention that something needed to be done to move prisoners forward out of the Big House era. The prisons’ new mission came to be rehabilitation. Over the next twenty years, the prisons used programs to reform and rehabilitate men and women prisoners. Eventually, prisons provided supervision and the necessary administrative, treatment, and related functions which became a vast network of correctional organizations that are used today to help those incarcerated belong, once again, to society.

Defining Race and Ethinicity

The terms “race” and “ethnicity” are very different from each other. Race is a term that was created to label an individual based on their physical features. These physical features would be used to group certain individuals with similar features and use their “race” as a means for subjugating or enslaving them to give others power. An example of the use of the term race would be the United State’s own usage of African people as slaves for the plantations in the original thirteen colonies. These people of Africa were individuals who lived together as a communal society. They usually had a king. They shared their essentials needed to live. They lived in a society that punished with a learned technique. They had their politics and were artistically developed. These were a people of an established nation. It was with the use of racism that these people were captured. Racism allowed the captors to see the Africans as a subhuman, thus allowing years of enslavement, torture, and death to millions of African people.

Where racism is a tool of power, ethnicity is a tool of knowledge and tolerance. Ethnicity is the term used to know a person’s lineage. Ethnicity is a person’s essence, the factors that make this person an individual yet ties them to other individuals. Ethnicity is a person’s culture, religion, inheritance of natural gifts, and physical traits that create who they are. People have ways of how they live built on what their parents taught them or based on their environmental surroundings. People believe the way they do based on parental influence and that of their religion. People have traits and talents passed down to them from their ancestors. Physical features are inherited from their ancestral lineage. Knowing what makes up a person makes room for tolerance of why people behave or act the way that they do. One such example of knowing someone’s ethnicity is sharing a meal with someone who has a different ethnicity from another. The person is allowed the experience to know a different part of the world through food.

Knowing the difference between race and ethnicity allows a person to choose to experience life in either a positive or negative way. The United States is a country made up by many different cultures. Knowing the details of the many cultures will allow the people of the United States to avoid stereotyping and being racist, which in turn, allows our country to grow in strength.

Orientalism, Prejudice and Discrimination

Although many have a conception that Muslims and Arabs are the same, this is a major misconception. Muslims are followers of the Islamic religion. These people base their ideals on faith. Muslims can be of different ethnicities, such as Africans, Americans, South Asians, Arabs, Bosnians, and even Hispanic people. Arab is an ethnicity. Arabs are people that can be Jordanian, Lebanese, Palestinians, or Syrians. Not all Arabs are Muslims, some are Coptic Christians. Arabs can be Christian or secular. There are very distinct differences between Muslims and Arabs. Not having knowledge of differences can lead to narrow thinking.

It was the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, that caused people to react with narrow views on citizens of this country. Racial profiling and registration programs were put into action by the Department of Justice that stereotyped people. Many senators have expressed concern for such abuse and a number of bills have been passed to correct the 9/11 abuse.

Such thinking that took place after 9/11 is referred to as Orientalism. Three characteristics of Orientalism are the grouping of people as one, using physical features as a guide, and confusing religion with ethnicity and not seeing the diversity of cultures among a people.

By not seeing people for their individuality, others make the mistake of grouping others with those they have no common ground with. These people are only seen as the viewer chooses to see them, good or bad. This country is way too multicultural to continue to be ignorant of those who make up this great country. As a citizen of this country, it is our responsibility to be aware of our fellow countrymen. People need to educate themselves. People need not to react with emotion when situations seem prejudice bound. People need to use tolerance and knowledge to see the truth in what is really happening. Anyone, at any given time, can be labeled by prejudice which can alter the truth.

Freud, Jung and Rogers

Freud stressed the unconscious – all the ideas, thoughts, and feelings of which we are not normally aware of. Freud’s ideas form the basis of psychoanalysis, a term that refers to both Freud’s theory of personality and to the form of therapy that he invented. According to Freud, human behavior is based on three kinds of unconscious instincts, or drives. Some instincts are aggressive and destructive. Others such as hunger, thirst, and self-preservation are necessary for the survival of the individual. Freud theorized that personality is formed around three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego.
Id is the only structure present at birth, completely unconscious. It consists of unconscious urges and desires that continually see expression. Id tries to obtain immediate pleasure and to avoid pain. It obtains gratification through reflex actions (coughing) or through fantasy [wish fulfillment (daydream)]. The id itself is not very effective at gratifying instincts so it must link up with reality through the ego to satisfy its needs.
The ego learns about the external world through the senses, but instead of acting on the pleasure principle, the ego delays the id’s desires until it can do it safely and successfully.
To have only a personality that consisted only of ego and id would be completely selfish. A personality as such would behave effectively but unsociably. Full adult behavior includes the third part of Freud’s theory: the superego. The superego acts as an individual’s conscious. The superego is not present at birth, but in time, the superego takes over the task of observing and guiding the ego.
Ideally, our id, ego, and superego work in harmony; however, when there is no harmony between the three, anxieties arise within the ego. Certain variety of defense mechanisms includes the following: denial, repression, projection, identification, regression, intellectualization, reaction information, displacement, and sublimination.
Freud’s theory of how personality develops focused on the way in which we satisfy sexual instinct during the course of life. The energy generated by sexual instinct is called libido. According to Freud, there are three stages during a child’s development that endure into adulthood. The first stage, the oral stage, is from birth to 18 months. The second stage, the anal stage, is from 18 months to about 3 years of age. The third stage, the phallic stage, is from age 3 to around 5 years of age.
Carl Jung embraced many of Freud’s tenets; however, Jung contended that libido represented all the life forces, not just the sexual ones. Jung’s analytic psychology saw the unconscious as the ego’s source and vitality, not the superego. Jung believed the unconscious consisted of the personal unconscious and collective unconscious. The personal unconscious includes our repressed thoughts, forgotten experiences, and underdeveloped ideas which may rise to consciousness if an incident or sensation triggers their recall.
Jung divided people into two general attitude types: introverts and extroverts. Introverts are caught up in their own world and are unsociable. Extroverts turn their attention to the external world, taking an active interest in other people and the events that go on around them.
Jung further divided people into rational and irrational individuals. Rational people regulate their actions by thinking and feeling. Irrational people base their action on perception. Jung thought the psychic development only comes to its peak during middle age.
Carl Rogers, a humanistic theorist, maintained that men and women develop their personality in the service of striving towards higher goals. According to Rogers, the drive in all organisms such as plants, animals, and humans, is to fulfill its biological potential. A human’s potential is not only in fulfilling their inborn biological potential but their self-concept of what their conscious tells them who they are or what they should do with their lives.
When a person’s self-concept is closely matched to their inborn capacity, they are likely to be a fully functioning person, or self-directed. People become more fully functioning if they are brought up with unconditional positive regard, being loved regardless of their behavior. Unfortunately, it is more often parents offer conditional positive regard which means they value only certain aspects of the child. One response to conditional positive regard is to change your self-concept to please your caregiver. Because their lives are directed to satisfy another’s value and want, they experience no satisfaction and do not know who they really are or what they want.

The Communication Process of Neurons in the Brain

The average human brain contains as many as 100 billion neurons. These neurons vary in size and shape and each is specialized to receive and transmit information. Each neuron is made up of a nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane. What makes each neuron special in its own way are the tiny fibers that extend from the cell body. The short fibers branching out around the cell are called dendrites. These dendrites pick up incoming messages and transmit the message to the cell’s body. The long fiber extending from the cell body is an axon. The axon carries outgoing messages to neighboring neurons, glands or muscles. The end of the axon splits into many terminal branches. The axon is covered by a myelin sheath, which provides insulation to a signal and helps increase transmission speed of the signal.
Neurons communicate with each other by on-off electrochemical impulses. When at rest, fluids that are inside and outside of the neuron are temporarily barred from each other. At rest, the negative ions inside the neuron have no contact with the positive ions outside the neuron. Once stimulated, the ions become charged.
An incoming message stimulates the cell membrane. The membrane opens at a point and the positive ions flow in and cause an electrical charge, called a neural impulse, to be created. Thie neural impulse travels down the axon. This “fired” impulse can travel as fast as 400 feet per second, depending on myelination of the axon. This action travels to the end of the axon, through the terminal branches, into a tiny swelling called the terminal button. It is in the terminal button that there is a release of chemicals called neurotransmitters.
There are hundreds of neurotransmitters but the brain has some of its own. Some neurotransmitters of the brain are: Acetylcholine (ACh), which plays a major role in arousal, memory, attention, and motivation; Dopamine which affects voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotions; Glutamate which involves long-term memory and perception of pain; and Serotonin which is involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, pain, and aggressive behavior. These are but a few common neurotransmitters.
Once the neurotransmitters are released they must cover a distance between the terminal button of the processing message to the dendrite of the receiving of the message. This distance is called the synaptic cleft. A neurotransmitter can not just cross this synaptic cleft. They must be received by the presynaptic neuron located in the receiving dendrite.
Within the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron are sacs called synaptic vesicles. These vesicles release a specific chemical that sends messages to the incoming neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters cross the cleft, briefly binding with the receptor sites. The receptor receives only neurotransmitters of a certain shape, like a key and lock. If the shape is not specific, the message will not be transmitted. Imbalances of neurotransmitters can contribute to types of mental illnesses.

Historical Laws and Security

The Code of Hammurabi was created in 1760 BC in Ancient Babylon by King Hammurabi. The code is often pointed to be an example of the primitive form of what is known as a constitution.

Draco’s law was created by an Athenian legislator whose laws were known as notoriously harsh. He stated that all offenses deserved death. His idea of death for committing homicide is still used today.

The Law of Twelve Tables was created by the early Romans that were binding both patrician and plebeian.

Justinian Law was existing Roman laws collected into a simple and clear system of laws. Today, Justinian Law is used in public law in the area of law for government and in private law in the area of law for individuals.

Magna Carta guarantees that those Englishmen who started the colonies in the New World would have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects. Not even the king or his heirs could break this law. This heritage is most clearly apparent in our Bill of Rights.

The Statute of Westminster was a domestic law of the British Empire. Its historical importance marked the effective legislative independence of these countries and it sets the basis for the continuing relationship between the commonwealth realms and the Crown.

Both security and private laws are for protection, either individually or in general, as in public. As a guaranteed right of liberty and the pursuit of happiness, all are entitled protection from those who wish to infringe on that right.

Biography of Allan Pinkerton

Allan Pinkerton was born in Glasgow, Scotland on August 25, 1819. Pinkerton was a cooper or barrel maker in his native land. He immigrated to the United States in 1842 and settled near Chicago, Illinois (Kelly, 2009).

Pinkerton became involved with law when he accidentally came upon a campsite frequented by counterfeiters. He informed the sheriff, at the time, who in turned deputized Pinkerton to help arrest the men. The town council was impressed by Pinkerton and so they asked him to help with the investigation of the leader of the local counterfeiting ring. He did the job successfully and was offered a full-time job as an investigator by the sheriff. Before the year was over, he would accrue the highest number of arrests for burglaries and murders than any of the other more experienced police in Chicago’s squad roll (Geringer, 2008).

Pinkerton was asked to become the city’s first detective. Pinkerton took no guff, no sass, and no bribery. He succeeded because of his integrity. Pinkerton was considered a very brave man.

Although Pinkerton loved his work, it did not suffice, financially, for his growing family. He decided to open his own private investigation business. Pinkerton needed clients to help support his business and most were made through the railroad companies (Geringer, 2008). Pinkerton opened his own agency in 1850 (Kelly, 2009).

Pinkerton worked with telegraphers, government technicians, and armed experts to see that his agency understood and could use the most updated technology and armament. Pinkerton hired the first female detective agent who became the supervisor of women agents. Pinkerton was known as incorruptible and he had the tenacity for getting those he went after and he expected the same from his agents. When Pinkerton began his agency, many towns and cities had unqualified law enforcement bureaus and Pinkerton agents would take the most difficult cases ranging from financial and property thefts to government overthrows and murders (Geringer, 2008).

Some of Pinkerton’s earlier activities included the prevention of an assassination attempt on Abraham Lincoln and the organization of the first official secret service for duty behind confederate lines. Pinkerton also rode with the lawmen along the Old Frontier, hunting down members of Jesse James’ gang, the Reno brothers, and other desperados (Geringer, 2008). In 1858, Pinkerton formed the Pinkerton Protective Patrol which was a small group of uniformed watchmen who contracted with various businesses to offer night protection (Clifford, 2004). Pinkerton’s agency was so effective that when the government formed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), it used Pinkerton’s agency as its model (Geringer, 2009).

Allan Pinkerton died from gangrene in 1884. His sons carried on the business. In the last seventy-five years, the Pinkerton agency was needed more for security purposes than for man-hunting. There was a noticeable shift from detection to prevention. The agency spends more time investigating insurance frauds and providing around-the-clock security for large corporations (Geringer, 2009).

The Pinkerton agency opened six new officers under the sons’ reign. It was Pinkerton’s involvement as protectors of scabs and business property during labor problems that harmed Pinkerton’s reputation. The agency was involved in disputes, such as, the Wild Bunch Gang of 1896, the Pullman Strike of 1894, and the Ludlow Massacre of 1914. Although these activities made people view them, at the time, as an arm of the big businesses, the agency still survived (Kelly, 2008).

Pinkerton’s sons began an overseas relationship with Securitas AB of Stockholm and merged in 1999. Pinkerton is a senior partner with more than thirty-two countries as of today (Geringer, 2009).

Reference

Clifford, M. (2004). Identifying and exploring security essentials. Upper Saddle River,

New Jersey: Pearson.

Geringer, Joseph (2008). Allan Pinkerton and his agency: we never sleep. Retrieved on

May 3, 2009, from http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/gangsters_outlaws/

cops_others/pinkerton/1.html

Kelly, Martin (2009). A brief history of the pinkertons: the man behind it all. Retrieved

on May 3, 2009, from http://americanhistory.about.com/od/19thcentur1/a/

allan_pinkerton.htm

A Writer's Inspiration

One question that many people ask themselves after they have read a book is: What could have possibly inspired this writer to write a story such as this? Inspiration for writing a drama, an autobiography, a mystery, a poem, etc., can possibly be construed from actual events that have transpired in a writer’s life. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles and American History by Judith Ortiz Cofer are two writings that present some of life’s events. Although Oedipus Rex is considered fantasy writing while American History is a reflective essay of an actual event that took place in Cofer’s life, readers can still relate to both stories.

According to the Theatre History Website (2008), Sophocles was born in 495 B.C. in Colonus, a village near Athens. Sophocles’ father, Sophilus, was a man of great wealth and reputation. Sophilus was able to benefit Sophocles with all the literary accomplishment of that age. Sophocles received careful instructions in the arts of music and poetry. He was a graceful person and was very comely and agile at the age of sixteen. He was very talented with dance and the lyre. In his younger days, he admits to have been somewhat over fond of women and wine.

According to the Theatre History Website (2008), the commencement of Sophocles’ dramatic career was marked by a victory in a competition with Aeschylus. Sophocles’ choice of subject with his style of tragic art was sufficient enough to outbalance the reputation of the great antagonist, Aeschylus. Sophocles brought the air of freshness and youth to his poetry that others were ready for.

The Theatre History Website (2008) informs us that in a time frame of sixty years, Sophocles wrote one hundred and eighty plays that were exhibited as tragedies and satiric dramas. Sophocles did not spend his whole life catering to the muses. At the age of fifty-six, he was appointed one of the ten generals for the conduct of the war against Samos. Later he became a priest and in extreme old age, he was elected one of a committee ordered to investigate the conditions during the revolution brought about by Pisander.

According to the Theatre History Website (2008), only seven of Sophocles’ dramas have survived these hundreds of years to be examined by many people. All seven dramas are with their own peculiar twists that help each story to excel; they are Antigone, Ajax, Trachinioe, Hercules, Electra, and Oedipus at Colonus.

According to Acosta-Belén (2006), Judith Ortiz Cofer was born in 1952 in the small town of Homigueros, Puerto Rico. She came to the United States with her parents in 1956. The family settled in Paterson, New Jersey. Cofer spent portions of her childhood commuting between Homigueros and Paterson. This commuting was due to the fact that her father was stationed at Brooklyn’s Navy Yard and her mother was homesick for her beloved homeland and would have extended visits in Homigueros. Judith Cofer’s father was mostly absent in her life while he was in the military. Most of her schooling was in Paterson but she did live extended periods with her grandmother in Puerto Rico and attended the local schools.

Acosta-Belén (2006) reports that when Cofer was fifteen years old, she moved to Augusta, Georgia. In Georgia, she attended college and got an Undergraduate degree in English. She then moved to Florida and received a Masters of Arts degree from Florida Atlantic University. In 1984, Cofer joined the faculty of the University of Georgia where she is now Regent and Franklin’s Professor of English and Creative Writing.

Cofer’s inspirations for her writings come from commuting done between the two cultures, Puerto Rican and American. Her experiences are what give her poetry and fiction writing that authenticity found in her descriptions of the two cultural lives used in her writings.

According to Acosta-Belén (2006), Cofer’s first literary expressions were in poetry. One of her early chapbooks, Pergrina, won the Riverstone International Chapbook Competition. In 1987, her poetry collection, Terms of Survival, was published. In 1989, The Line in the Sun, a novel nominated for the Pulitzer Prize, was the piece that brought the attention needed to be recognized.

In order to properly interpret a story, one must analyze each story’s plot, setting, and use of literary devices and conventions. According to the Theatre History Website (2008), Oedipus Rex takes place in the ancient city of Thebes, Greece. There has been a plague in Thebes and the citizens come their king, Oedipus, asking for his help. Oedipus had sent Creon, his wife’s brother, to the Oracle at Delphi to see what needed to be done to rid them of the plague. Creon returns to tell him that all will be well once again as soon as the murderer of King Laius is found. The murderer is said to be within the city, and so once the city rids itself of him, the plague will leave them. Oedipus gets information from Creon of how Laius was murdered and promises to solve the murder of who killed him.

Oedipus sends for Tiresias, a blind prophet, to see if he knows anything about the murder. Tiresias eventually tells Oedipus that Oedipus, himself, is the murderer. Oedipus gets angry and refuses to believe Tiresias and accuses Creon and Tiresias of conspiring against him. As Oedipus throws Tiresias out, Tiresias leaves Oedipus with a riddle in order to solve the murder.

Oedipus’ wife comes into the picture and Oedipus informs his wife of the goings-on. She tells him that what the prophet has told him is impossible because she was told by the Oracle things that contradicted what was told to Oedipus. She was told that Laius’ firstborn son was going to murder Laius. She further relates how Laius was actually murdered. As she tells Oedipus of the murder, he recalls a similar scene long ago before he had arrived in Thebes. As he relates to his wife what events took place that day long ago, it becomes evident that he is the individual who murdered King Laius, not knowing who Laius was. It is then revealed that Oedipus is actually Laius’ son, whom Laius had thought was dead for many years due to a prophesy told to him when he was younger. Oedipus decides to send for one man that had survived the attack on Laius to clarify the story.

While Oedipus waits for the man to appear, a messenger approaches Oedipus’ wife with good news from Corinth. Oedipus is asked to rule in place of Polybus, Oedipus’ father, the recently deceased ruler. Oedipus’ wife shares this news with Oedipus, both taking the news as a comfort that half the prophecy is false. It is through this messenger that Oedipus learns that he was adopted by King Polybus. Oedipus and his wife suddenly realize that there still may be truth to the prophesy.

The man who knows the whole truth of Oedipus’ life is summoned and relates all to Oedipus. Oedipus screams and flees knowing the horrible truth, being that he was Laius’ real son and Oedipus’ wife is indeed his true mother. Oedipus returns to the palace to find that his wife has hung herself after finding out the truth. Oedipus responds by gouging out his eyes and then pleads with Creon to exile him from Thebes and leaves Creon to care for his daughters. Though this story has a very dramatic and unfortunate ending, American History has an ending that is somewhat similar to it.

According to Abcarian and Klotz (2007), American History takes place during the 1960s in Paterson, New Jersey, where a tenement building houses mostly Puerto Ricans. El Building, as the house is called, is located next to the only house with a yard. Salsa music flows from El Building daily, creating carefree atmosphere for those living in its walls. There is a familiarity for those who seek its shelter. With the contrast of El Building and the house next door come the contrasts of occupants that dwell within, setting the main inspiration for this story.

In American History, the story takes place during Cofer’s adolescent years. This is a time when a person unfortunately leaves behind all their childhood fantasies and learns the true realities that life can offer, whether kind or cruel. As the author emerges from her innocence of childhood into that of the realities of being a “senorita,” the nation is also going through changes. Changes for the good of all people became the focus for the President. All ethnicities had hope for good things to come.

As the author sees beauty in a newfound love all other tribulations become less important. As the nation becomes one in spirit, the people find joyous reasons to celebrate within their communities. But as life sometimes does, serenity can come to an abrupt end with a cruel twist.

Cruelty comes in different degrees depending on the recipient. For the nation, it comes in a crushing blow as the President is assassinated and hope, for many, is taken away. The reaction was astounding as the nation came together to mourn for this one person who would become a part of American history. For the young author, life throws its fair share of cruelties towards her as she is denied time with her new love and the reality of ethnicity becomes the divider. As she mourns this loss, she mourns it alone, but, she too, becomes a part of American history.

In order to create an enticing writing, not only does a writer need inspiration to write, but they must incorporate the use of literary devices and conventions into their piece. In Oedipus Rex, Sophocles incorporates a chorus which is used to separate each scene as well as express what feelings that the audience should be experiencing. Overall, the chorus’ main responsibility is to set the mood of the play. The writing style which Sophocles chose to use for Oedipus Rex is a dramatic style. The drama is definitely traceable with the fact that he incorporates mythological creatures and beliefs into his play. The way that Sophocles structures the play is around the intensity of certain parts. For example, the play becomes more dramatic as the story unfolds and Oedipus the king is reduced to a blind man banished from his home and forced to wander from place to place. One of the more obvious literary devices used in this well written play is dramatic irony. This uses dramatic irony in the fact that the audience knows that it was Oedipus who killed the previous king, his father, before Oedipus is able to figure it out.

Throughout American History, Judith writes about common teenage tribulations such as being labeled and sometimes a more major challenge, such as, being ostracized. The overall tribulation for young Judith in "American History" is when realization sets in. Cofer’s use of incorporating common human emotions in her story is what helps her readers to relate to the story. Cofer also uses one of the most common literary devices to form her story: irony. The irony in "American History" is how young Judith was unaffected by the president's assassination, yet when she was confronted by Eugene's mother and her harsh words, Judith's world falls apart and she is no longer naive to what is going on around her. Perhaps the only reason Judith remembers the assassination is because that part of American history took place at a historical moment in Judith's personal life, her first heartache.

Though it seems that these two stories, as well as their authors, are complete polar opposites, like everything in life, they share common ground. Both stories relate to life’s trials and tribulations. These two stories are evidence that although Sophocles and Cofer lived not lifetimes apart, but worlds apart as well, they prove that people will always have obstacles in their lives that they must overcome. Some of the more noticeable differences between the two stories are that the situation in Oedipus Rex is not as common or as real as the situation that Judith faces in American History. Oedipus Rex is also a fantasy story formatted as a play whereas American History is an actual autobiography that is written in essay form. The overall message from these two writings and authors is that no matter how different two individuals’ lives are from one another, they can still use their life experiences as inspiration for writing.










References
Abcarian, Richard, Klotz, Marvin, 2007. Literature: the human experience. Boston,
Massachusetts, Bedford St. Martin’s
Acosta-Belén, Edna, 2006. New Georgia encyclopedia: Judith Ortiz Cofer. Retrieved on
October 5, 2008, from http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-
488
2002. Sophocles and his tragedies. Retrieved on October 5, 2008, from http://www.
theatrehistory.com/ancient/sophocles001.html

The Salem Witch Trials

An event took place in Massachusetts from February 29 to September 22 in the year of 1692. In those seven months, according to Campbell (2007), 185 people were accused of witchcraft; of those 185 people, 141 were women and 44 were men; of those accused, 52 women and 7 men were tried; of those tried, 26 women and 5 men were convicted; of those convicted, 14 women and all 5 men were executed by way of hanging. Linder (2007) has noted that one man was pressed to death and two dogs were executed. It was believed that the dogs were accomplices of witches. Witchcraft was considered the motive to generate these executions, but evidence shows that social differences may have been the true cause. Those who break the boundaries set up by society run the risk of being persecuted and having their livelihood destroyed, just as that which had been experienced during the time of the Salem Witch Trials.

Many factors led up to the witch hunts in Salem, Massachusetts in the year of 1692. Some of these key factors included feuds, economical differences, teenage boredom, and intolerance. Linder (2007) points out that there were two major families competing for control of the village and its pulpit, the Putnams and the Porters. Salem’s economics were based on agriculture and sea trade. Linder (2007) wrote that Salem Village, a smaller part of Salem, which was agriculture-based, wanted independence from the main part of Salem, which was the center of sea trade. In Salem Village, idle teenagers sought a way to entertain themselves, even though later, that entertainment would be the cost of innocent lives. According to Sutter (2003), it has been suggested that a combination of boredom, financial stress, and experimenting with witchcraft led to the provocation for certain citizens of Salem to be accused of being witches. Linder (2007) shows that the majority of the accused were considered well off, as compared to the accusers, who were less fortunate and stood to gain property from the convictions of those accused of being witches. According to Sutter (2003), many of those accused supported Minister George Burroughs while families that included the accusers supported Minister Samuel Parris and played a major role in charging Burroughs with being a wizard. With such factors playing into Salem’s society and causing such tense emotions, it would take but one suggestion against the norms of that society to put the population into a state of hysteria. When hysteria hits a society, individuals react by choosing a side. In Salem, this action was set in motion with the accusing words of bored teenagers. Whether or not they intended these words to create such hysteria in their society is uncertain, but the harm that their words caused would remain an example of how accusations could destroy the lives of many people. Thus began the change of many lives in the form of the Salem witch trials.

At the beginning of the witch hunts, the first to be accused were persecuted based on their differences, whether it was relative to religion or to their station in life. Later the persecutions would be used to keep outspoken citizens of the town in line. According to Linder (2007), Tituba, a native of Barbados, was a servant of the newcomer Minister Parris’ household. Tituba would teach young teenage girls how to read fortunes and would tell them stories about witches and magic. Unfortunately, Tituba’s own words and teachings would be the tools used in accusing her of being a witch. Her confession of using witchcraft would be her deliverance from hanging. According to Sutter (2003), at the end of the witch trials, Tituba was released and later sold to pay off her debts. Sutter (2003) wrote that Sarah Good was a beggar who would shelter at the benevolence of others. It was said that when she was refused shelter or paid no alms, she would mutter unintelligible words which were believed to have been curses. Linder (2007) also pointed out that Sarah Good’s four year-old daughter, Dorcas, was also accused of being a witch. One of the teenage girls had accused Dorcas of biting her which led to Dorcas’ imprisonment for eight months where she suffered at having to witness her mother being taken to the gallows to be executed. An interesting fact which Sutter (2003) has shown us, is that, at Sarah Good’s hanging, Reverend Nicholas Noyes asked her to confess being a witch, and she responded, “I am no more a witch than you are a wizard and if you take away my life, God will give you blood to drink.” Twenty-five years later, Reverend Nicholas Noyes died of hemorrhage, which had caused him to choke to death on his own blood. According to Sutter (2003), Sarah Osborn was another who was persecuted based on the fact that she was a very quarrelsome old woman who had not attended church in over a year which was considered a sin to the Puritans. Sutter (2003) wrote that Sarah Osborn was arrested and put in jail. She later died of natural causes while still in jail. Many were also persecuted for speaking out against the trials. According to Linder (2007), Martha Corey was accused by Ann Putnam for afflicting her, after the fact that Martha had spoken out loud that she did not believe the young accusers. The fact that Martha did not attend church regularly and had a mulatto child from a previous relationship also caused her to be profiled as a witch. Linder (2007) informs his readers that Martha’s husband, Giles, spoke out against the accusations of his wife, calling the accusers liars, causing him to become the next target in the persecutions. Linder (2007) has written that Giles received the punishment of being pressed by stones for refusing to stand trial. Sutter (2003) has noted that Martha Corey and eight others were executed three days after her husband’s death and were the last of the accused to be executed during this horrific event.

Sutter (2003) points out that it had been suggested that the execution of Giles, which was viewed by the spectators as horrific, and the fact that Minister George Burroughs had been able to recite a prayer word for word, which was believed to have been impossible if he was truly a witch, were two key factors in stopping the witch hunts. When the witch trials ended, there were still hard times awaiting both the accused and the accusers. Many who had been accused of witchcraft remained in jail long after the trials were over. According to Sutter (2003), those in jail were not allowed to be released until either they or their families were able to pay for their debts. Those who had been accused of witchcraft also had their land confiscated by the state, leaving them homeless and having to find a place to start over once more. Sutter (2003) also points out that those who had accused others had spent so much time attending the trials that their land was left unattended. It would be many years to come before the town of Salem would be able to build the abundance of their agriculture back to what it had once been. Sutter (2003) informs his readers that the Essex County Court declared that the Salem Village committee was derelict in its duties; therefore a new election was to take place on January 15, 1693. The fact that the Parris family had played a large role in accusing innocent people of being witches caused the newly elected committee to be anti-Parris. According to Sutter (2003), the minister brought in to replace Reverend Parris was Joseph Green, who worked hard in restoring the community’s faith. He would have the accusers sit next to the accused when in church. This action was believed to have caused a healing among the community and for the accused to be accepted back into the church. Sutter (2003) informs us that in an attempt to atone for the murder of innocent people, the town held a day of fasting and prayer for forgiveness on January 13, 1697.

Society sets up boundaries in a community to unite its members, but what may pass as acceptable in society can go against what life considers a balance of nature. Take the case of Martha Corey. She spoke in defense of those being accused and at that time, society was encouraged to remain silent or take the risk of being accused of being a witch. In her heart, Martha knew what was taking place in her community was wrong, decided to overcome her fear, and spoke out against the accusers. It may have seemed that her words died when she was hung, but it was the actions of the people like her that caused to community members to start questioning what was taking place. We can stand and watch injustices take place or we can survive as nature intended and go against that which unnaturally confines and kills us.




References

Campbell, Donna, 2007. “The Salem witch trials.” Literary movement. Retrieved May

10, 2008, from http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/witch.htm

Linder, Douglas, 2007. The Salem witch trials of 1692. Retrieved April 27, 2008, from

http://www/law.umkc.edu/ faculty/projects/trials/salem/SALEM.HTM

Sutter, Tim, 2000-2003. Salem witchcraft: the events and causes of the Salem witch

trials. Retrieved April 27, 2008, from http://www.salemtrialfacts.com/

salemwitchcraft.html